Bodhipaksa

Shakyamuni mantra

Iconography of the Buddha Śākyamuni (or Shakyamuni)

This page doesn’t seek to give a complete history of Buddha images, but simply introduces some elements of their origins and early development.

Aniconic phase

As far as is known, during the Buddha’s life and during the first few centuries thereafter, no images were made. This seems to have been a sign of respect, and an acknowledgement that the Buddha was too transcendent a figure to be represented visually.

Those who by my form did see me,
And those who followed me by voice
Wrong the efforts they engaged in,
Me those people will not see.

Although these words are from a much later text (the Diamond Sutra) than the period we’re discussing, they sum up neatly the problem with relating to the Buddha in terms of his visual image. The Buddha is the Buddha by virtue of his insight into the nature of reality, by virtue of his realization of the Dharma. This truth was expressed by the Buddha himself when he said, “Yo Dhammam passati so Buddham passati,” or, whoever sees the Dhamma sees the Buddha. To truly see the Buddha, to see his essence, we need to recapture the same experience of Awakening that made him what he was.

The empty throne.

So it was probably for reasons such as these that the Buddha’s form was not originally shown in images. For centuries, the Buddha would be represented by an absence. The Bodhi tree, beneath which the Buddha became enlightened and beneath which he must often have taught, is shown, complete with a seat made of heaped kusa grass. But where the Buddha would be, there is only space: an empty throne.

Sometimes the Buddha is represented in another way that is ingeniously a statement both of presence and of absence; his footprints — larger than life and often full of elaborate symbols — are shown. These giant footprints are symbolic of the massive effect that the Buddha had on Indian culture, while cleverly avoiding showing the Buddha himself.

The Buddha’s footprints.

Other aniconic representations of the Buddha include: The Wheel, representing the Dharma; Lions (just as the lion is chief amongst animals, so the Buddha is chief amongst sentient beings); the lotus, representing purity and wisdom; the parasol, a symbol of royal status; and, after the Buddha’s death, the stupa, or reliquary.

Earliest known Buddha Image

The earliest known Buddha image that can be confidently dated is the Bimaran casket.

The Bimaran Casket.

Unearthed in the 1800′s, the casket contained coins of the Indo-Scythian king Azes II, suggesting a date around 30BCE to around 10BCE. The casket shows the standing Buddha (center) with the right hand in the Abhaya (fearlessness) mudra. He is flanked by the gods Brahma (right) and Sakka (left).

The iconography is already quite sophisticated, and if the date is accurate then presumably there were earlier Buddhist images that have not survived or have not been found.

Gandharan period

Many of the earliest Buddha images are from the Gandharan area of northern Pakistan, from the first century CE. In this region and time, classical Greek culture, brought by the invading forces of Alexander the Great, met Indian culture.

One of the finest and most enduring fruits of this meeting of cultures was Gandharan Buddhist art, which included Hellenic depictions of the Buddha. Unlike Indian Buddhists, the Greeks had no reservations about creating religious icons, and the Gandharans produced exquisite sculptures of the Buddha, based on Greek representations of Apollo, complete with Greco-Roman toga.

Gandharan standing Buddha.

One early Buddha image can be seen on this Kushana dynasty (first century CE) coin, which depicts a standing Buddha on the reverse side and the inscription “BODDO.” This coin is from the reign of King Kanishka I, who encouraged the development of Gandharan art.

Kushana dynasty coin.

Regionalization of Buddhist Art

From the Gandharan period onwards, as Buddhism reached other cultures (Thailand, Sri Lanka, Burma, China, Tibet, Japan, etc), Buddha images were produced in the local style, and also reflected the local ethnicity. For example, Chinese images of the Buddha show the Buddha as Chinese, and Japanese images show him as Japanese. Western artists have continued this trend and images of the Buddha as a European are in place in many Buddhist centers in Europe, Australia, and North America. There are probably images of the Buddha as an African, although I’ve never seen one.

Mudras

The various mudras (hand gestures) in images of the Buddha generally refer to different events in his life, express different aspects of his life and mission, or both.

The main mudras of the Buddha are:

• Dhyana mudra (meditation)
• Bhumisparsha mudra (earth-touching)
• Abhaya mudra (fearlessness)
• Vitarka mudra (teaching, or wheel-turning)
• Varada (giving)

Dhyana mudra

There are two main forms of Dhyana mudra, which represents the Buddha in meditation (the meaning of the word “dhyana”).

Dhyana (Meditation) Mudra.

In the simplest form the right hand is laid on top of the left with the thumbs touching. In the form shown (more common in far eastern art) the thumb and index finger of each hand make a circle.

The dhyana mudra is the “default” gesture of the Buddha, and simply reflects his realization. The Buddha spent much of his life in meditation, and is described at times as going off for solitary retreats in order to concentrate on his practice away from the bustle of the spiritual community he had founded.

The Buddha’s dhyana mudra is shared with the archetypal Buddha, Amitabha.

Bhumisparsha mudra

The bhumisparsha, or earth-touching mudra, is connected with the Buddha’s enlightenment.

Bhumisparsha (Earth-Touching) Mudra.

It’s said that on the eve of his awakening the Buddha experienced doubt in the form of a demon, Mara, who challenged his qualifications to sit on the diamond throne (vajrasana) where all previous Buddhas had gained enlightenment. In response the Buddha touched the ground with his right hand, calling forth the earth goddess to bear witness to his practice over countless lives. The earth-touching mudra therefore communicates the Buddha’s confidence and his ancient lineage.

The archetypal Buddha, Akshyobya, shares the earth-touching mudra with Shakyamuni.

Abhaya mudra

The abhaya (fearlessness) mudra shows the right hand held, palm open, at the shoulder. The hand is relaxed.

Abhaya (Fearlessness) Mudra.

This gesture is traditionally associated with a time when the Buddha’s cousin, Devadatta, who was jealous of his power, tried to kill him by prompting a wild elephant to charge into his path. The Buddha subdued the animal by raising his hand in this gesture of fearlessness.

The Buddha’s advice on handling fear was basically to “feel the fear and do it anyway.” When fear arises we just experience it and keep on with whatever activity we were engaged with.

The abhaya mudra is also found in images of the archetypal Buddha, Amoghasiddhi.

Vitarka mudra

The Vitarka, or teaching mudra, can be made by one or both hands, and is a supremely delicate gesture.

Vitarka (Teaching) Mudra.

The right hand is held up, the palm outwards. The index finger and thumb of the right hand make a closed circle, with the other fingers extended in a relaxed manner.

The left hand varies. In some cases the middle finger and thumb touch to make a circle, while in others it’s the thumb and index finger. Usually the palm faces the chest, the hand is held a little lower than the left, very close to the right hand. Sometimes the left hand is simply in dhyana mudra.

This mudra is also known as the “wheel-turning,” or Dharmachakra mudra. The Dharma is the Buddha’s teaching, and “chakra” simply means wheel. The Buddha is said to have begun “turning the wheel of the Dharma” when he first taught the five ascetics at Issipatana after his Enlightenment.

The metaphor here is not particularly clear, but the Dharma is often symbolized by an eight-spoked wheel. This wheel is clearly a solar symbol, with the spokes representing the rays of the sun, the sun being the foremost of all celestial objects just as the king is the highest social status amongst unenlightened mortals.

The wheel was a therefore a kingly symbol in ancient India. This association may have been enhance by the fact that the chariot had been the “super-weapon” that had allowed the northern Aryans to conquer the native peoples of the Indus valley and beyond.

Lastly, a friend once told me that the wheel-turning gesture was very similar to that made in starting a spinning-wheel, and since the Buddhist word for a teaching — “sutra” — literally means “thread” it seems conceivable that there was originally some sense of the Buddha setting forth the turning of the spinning wheel what gave rise to the “threads” of the Dharma.

This mudra is also shared with the archetypal Buddha, Vairochana, who is the central Buddha in the five Buddha mandala.

Varada mudra

The varada mudra, or gesture of giving, involves either the right or the left hand, which is held, with the arm held naturally by the side, palm outwards. This mudra may be seen on both seated and standing Buddha images.

Varada (Giving/Blessing) Mudra.

The gesture symbolizes both giving and blessing. The Buddha’s life was characterized by giving and this mudra can be connected with the Buddha’s decision to teach after the entreaty by Brahma Sahampati. The Buddha’s life from that point forth consisted entirely of giving.

If the left hand is used for the varada mudra, usually in standing figures, the right is often in the gesture of fearlessness.

This mudra is also seen in Tara and in Ratnasambhava, the Buddha of the South.

Comments

Pages in this article 1 2